The academic journal has been published since 1997. Initially it has been available in a form of monothematic issues. From the 21st volume, the Journal has been published every six months and it deals with problematic matters encompassing all history fields. Scientific articles, materials, reviews and all types of notes connected to history and academia are published here. The journal is addressed to a large circle of both professional and amateur historians. The journal does not charge the authors any fees for publishing an article. Punkty MEiN: 100 ISSN: 2082-6060 e-ISSN: 2449-8467 Submitted articles rejection rate : approx. 20%
Full copyright statement can be read here
Copyright (c) 2025 Agnieszka Muchowska http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Dariusz Słapek – an Unconventional Biography
Tekst przedstawia sylwetkę oraz działalność naukową, popularyzatorską i organizacyjną prof. dra Dariusza Słapka: badania naukowe dziejów Rzymu w okresie późnej Republiki i wczesnego Cesarstwa, ze szczególnymi studiami nad niewolnictwem i rozwojem igrzysk gladiatorskich, popularyzacja antyku, rekonstrukcje historyczne, badania i upowszechnianie idei olimpijskich od starożytności do współczesności, historia sportu na Lubelszczyźnie i w Polsce.
Copyright (c) 2025 Henryk Kowalski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Employment of Non-free Persons in the Old Babylonian Period, as Exemplified by Women
The identification of various groups of hirelings in the Old Babylonian Period as far as their social status is concerned is not easy due to a very short formular of the contract of hire and the very simple way these persons are mentioned in them. As a result the only group with which it is possible are women, who appear in 45 contracts and who were slaves in 43 of them. This results from the lack of any mentions of their family relationships with anyone else. Women who were hired in these documents in spite of their small number can be studied both in long term, as well as short-term hires, in cases when the purpose is determined and when it is not. The essential thing is that thanks to the fact that they create a single compact group in legal sense the result of the analysis can be considered conclusive for the important question “What was the role of the unfree hired-women in the economy of the Old Babylonian Period?” In short one can assume that irrespectively of their gender the women paid a valued labor service, for which the hirer granted their owners an average pay taking into consideration also men. However, the conditions of the hire of women were adapted to their physical abilities. Thus they were hired much more rarely, and it was basically hire for about one month, and the purpose of hire was most often harvest. As a result one can assume that although the work performed by women in hire was a full value labor it was only supplementary to that of men which appear ca. 6 times more often in hire documents in this period.
Copyright (c) 2025 Witold Tyborowski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Military Forces of Akhenaten and Their Socio-religious Involvement
Imagery of the military and police appeared more frequently in the reign of „heretic” king Akhenaten than the previous period, especially in funerary context, on the temple talatat and in the decoration of royal buildings. This paper contains a brief insight in the military forces’ structures (including policemen), to give some observations their involvement of the socio-religious lives during the reign Akhenaten at Tell el-Amarna (ancient Akhetaten, „The Horizon of the Aten”). We can suggest that the army relating to military power and Akhenaten kingship ideology.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sławomir Grzegorz Jędraszek http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Hellenism, as understood by the ancients, was a set of cultural characteristics that set the Greeks apart from others. In the Hellenistic period, it was fundamentally defined by a commonality of language, worship of the gods, lifestyle and sport, and with the latter the related spread of gymnasia. Beyond the Euphrates, there is little trace of Greek settlement; acculturation into Greek culture of the settlers' children was not served by a tenuous network of gymnasia. The cities of the Hellenistic East were oriental in character and their polity was generally shaped according to oligarchic Macedonian models. The Seleukid rulers were eager to endow Greek temples, but rarely participated in Greek agonies. The Arsakids shunned – probably deliberately - both activities. The weakness of Hellenism beyond the Euphrates is also evidenced by the low involvement of subjects of both dynasties in Greek sports. The promotion of Greek culture beyond the Euphrates, already weak in the Seleukid era, came to an end under the Arsakids, and Hellenism quickly lost its vitality.
Copyright (c) 2025 Krzysztof Nawotka http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Ancient Methodology of Conquering the City According to Philo of Byzantium (3rd Century BC)
Ancient historiography provides many descriptions of sieges, but it does so in a typical way – omitting details that are important for a researcher of military history. Authors such as Aeneas the Tactician and Philo of Byzantium come to the rescue. They were both responsible for creating the first military textbooks dealing with the defense of a besieged city and the siege of cities. This article aims to present primarily the methods of conducting a siege in ancient times in the context of the recommendations provided by Philo of Byzantium.
Copyright (c) 2025 Artur Turowski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Clientele and Political Sympathies Over the Central Adriatic at the End of the Republic in the Context of Settlement Processes in Picenum and on Ager Gallicus in the Third Through the First Centuries BCE
The factor that caused the Ager Gallicus and Picenum to undergo significant social, ethnic and cultural changes was the migrations that took place in the 3rd–1stBCE, when these areas became the domain of the Roman Republic. The settlers completely changed the ethnic landscape on the Adriatic Sea. In the 2nd and 1stBCE, we can see the active political involvement of the inhabitants of Picenum and Ager Gallicus on the side of the Populares and Optimates. The divisions in Roman society at this time caused perturbations resulting in the war with the allies and the civil wars. These resulted in severe destruction in cities, as well as a large loss of population that died in battles and purges carried out in the aftermath of the conflicts, and internal migrations related to fleeing the war and its aftermath and resulting from the policy of the great Roman chieftains to reward their soldiers for military service with land in Picenum and Ager Gallicus. Attention should also be drawn to the existence of very strong clientelist links with representatives of Roman families whose roots or connections originated in these areas. It was thanks to the clientele, not only from the Adriatic areas, that politicians could afford to realize their ambitions in Rome; in return for their support, their clients also had the chance to pursue their dreams and careers alongside their patrons.
Copyright (c) 2025 Maciej Piegdoń http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Struggle for Power in Rome in 59 BC. Its Causes, Course and Results
The author begins his discussion of Caesar's struggle for power in Rome in 59 BC by showing its causes. This is achieved by analyzing the situation in which this politician found himself after being elected consul in the middle of the previous year. Its results indicate that in order to realise his plans and achieve his set goals, i.e. to further develop his career, increase his importance, and expand and strengthen his position in the country, he had to change the balance of power prevailing in the republic. First of all, to neutralize the opponents, his hostile partner Bibulus in the consulship, and the optimates who supported him and dominated the senate forum, i.e. also the Roman political arena. Then, the author presents Caesar's expansion of his rear, undertaken to serve this purpose, i.e. the consolidation of the anti-Optimacy opposition, the acquisition of new allies, and his chosen strategy for fighting opponents. Further, he presents the course of the clashes and the circumstances accompanying the implementation by Caesar of the first agrarian law (lex Iulia agraria), which in fact served him as a tool to carry out a political coup in Rome, as a result of which the consul Bibulus, who opposed the law, and the senate supporting him were deprived of any real influence on public affairs. Caesar, informally supported by Pompey and Crasus, took over full power in the state for the rest of 59.
Copyright (c) 2025 Norbert Rogosz http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Importance of Commius in Caesar’s Clientage System in Gaul in 57–52 BC
In 57–52 BC, the Atrebate king Commius played an important role in Caesar’s clientage system established in Gaul, stabilizing the northern border and protecting it against Germans and other Belgic tribes. Commius’ cooperation with Caesar was mainly diplomatic, because the Atrebates’ military involvement in the Roman conquests remained entirely symbolic. The wide range of political freedom given to Commius meant that he gradually strengthened his own position and that of his family, trying to avoid open conflicts with neighbors. At the same time, he maintained good relations with the peoples of Britain, which resulted from the ongoing settlement of the Atrebates on the other side of the English Channel. When Commius abandoned Caesar’s case in 52 BC, the proconsul had to deal with the former client who had serious diplomatic and military potential, and was respected among many Gallic tribes.
Copyright (c) 2025 Michał Norbert Faszcza http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Crassus Cursed. Notes on the Unfortunate Start of the Campaign Against the Parthians in 55 BC.
This article is concerned with the credibility of testimonies about a curse cast by the tribune of the plebs Ateius Capito, who wanted to disrupt Crassus' departure from Rome (profectio). The curse ritual described by Plutarch is mistakenly classified as illegal magical practices, I think this is ‘unsanctioned religious activity’. I use this term in the sense proposed by C.R. Phillips III.
Copyright (c) 2025 Danuta Musiał http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Contra spem spero? Cicero's Last Political Struggle
The aim of this article is to show how Marcus Tullius Cicero's hope for the restoration of the republic after Caesar's assassination changed in the last years of his life. The author analyses the information contained in Cicero's surviving letters and philosophical writings from that period. Their message is not unambiguous, which means that they can be interpreted in different ways today. Cicero was not a supporter of Caesar's dictatorship, but after his assassination, he was aware that tyranny continued and that the chances of rebuilding the republic were slim. Nevertheless, he undertook a final struggle, in which his weapons were speeches against Antony and philosophical writings, the content of which shows many similarities to Cicero's thoughts expressed in the Philippics. The orator did all this to prove that he deserved to be remembered by posterity.
Copyright (c) 2025 Hanna Appel http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Maritime Symbols on Herod the Great’s Coins as an Evidence of His Naval Power and Ambitions?
The article is an analysis of the symbolism on coins of Herod the Great connected with the sea, thanks to which I try to answer questions whether Herod conducted any maritime policy, in particular, whether had warships. In my research I examine also available written and archaeological sources, as well as I make the comparative analysis of Herod’s coinage with coins issued by other Judean rulers and with coins of other ancient kings, on which maritime symbols are seen. On this base I try to establish , whether Herod the Great conducted the real maritime policy, having adequate opportunities towards it, whether we are dealing only with propaganda aspects in case of his coins.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jerzy Ciecieląg http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Augustus, Livia, and concordia ordinum. Ovid, Fasti 6, 637–648 Reconsidered
The founding of aedes Concordiae by Livia in 7 B.C. has so far been analyzed as an example of a concord between spouses and/or within the imperial family. Taking into account the descent of Augustus and Livia as well as the analogy to the renewal of the cult of Pudicitia Patricia and Pudicitia Plebeia, the author puts forward the thesis that Livia’s association with Concordia also aimed at highlighting concordia ordinum, peace between orders, during Augustus’ reign.
Copyright (c) 2025 Andrzej Gillmeister http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Power of Beast: The Capitoline Wolf as an Element in the Construction of Roman Identity
One of the important hashtags of the modern perception of the history of Ancient Rome is the Capitoline Wolf. The article develops the issue of the iconography of the plot about the miraculous rescue of Romulus and Remus based on the analysis of numismatic sources. Since coins are a complex source, it has been established that the magistrates of the Greek cities of the eastern provinces of the Roman state placed the Capitoline Wolf and twins on exchange coins. If it was a question of minting in veteran colonies, then the legend on such coins provides us with the name of the settlement. It is also important that in the semi-autonomous minting of cities, local elites combined the Capitoline Wolf with the figures of local deities, the personification of the demos or important local socio-political phenomena. Thus, this image became an important part of the identity of the population of the 2nd–3rd centuries AD. Such coins were not issued for decades, but given that most cities minted coins for a very short time, the presence of coins with a Lupa Capitolina among the issues is important. It is interesting that it was during this period that very archaic myths were revived in coinage.
Copyright (c) 2025 Anastasiya Baukova http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Belief in the Afterlife and Religious Consciousness in Roman Society (I BC – AD II)
This article explores the belief of Roman society in the afterlife. It is well-established that Roman society lacked a single consensus on the nature of life and death, the soul’s existence in the afterlife, and related matters. For instance, some believed that the soul perished alongside the body. However, the everyday religious consciousness of Roman society embraced the idea of an afterlife as a physical realm that provided shelter for the souls of the dead and could, under certain circumstances, be accessed by the living. Evil deeds committed during life were believed to be repaid with punishment in the afterlife. Properly conducted funeral rites were thought to aid the soul of the deceased in its journey from the world of the living to the realm of the dead, ensuring its peace in the afterlife. The widespread belief in the soul’s continued existence paved the way for Roman society to embrace the ideas of Christianity.
Copyright (c) 2025 Oleh Petrechko http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Roman filii familias milites and the Specifics of Their Legal and Property Distinctiveness During the Early Roman Empire
Filii familias, as alieni iuris, were subject to the parental authority (patria potestas) of patres familiarum, i.e. the heads of the household (as sui iuris), and they were deprived of full legal capacity to make property decisions. Under Roman law, they could only benefit from property (bona domestica-peculium) to which their family superiors, i.e. grandparents or fathers, held ownership. However, this such unfavorable situation with regard to the legal and property spheres of the sons-in-law may have changed with their entry into service in the Roman army. Therefore, the author of this text intends to reconstruct the status of Roman soldiers who were sons-in-chief, i.e. filii familias milites, and for whom joining the Roman army could be an opportunity to obtain the protection of Roman law with regard to their property (i.e. peculium castrense) and, importantly, at least partial independence in terms of disposing of it (i.e. testamentum militis).
Copyright (c) 2025 Ireneusz Łuć http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Despite the progress that has been made in the field of research on Roman private colleges, our knowledge of women's participation in corporate life has not changed significantly for almost a century. Based on an analysis of the epigraphic sources, I try to show that the presence of women among the members of both professional and religious colleges was a rare phenomenon, with no clear impact on the functioning of these organizations. The role that women played in Roman corporatism stands in stark contrast to the vision of the colleges as an alternative social space in which boundaries based on legal status or gender were to be blurred. On the contrary, it seems that Roman corporations attempted to, as much as possible, follow the same models and rules that were binding in the civic space. The collegia did not create an alternative social reality. They had no space for a “revolutionary” reversal of the social order: women appeared among the corporati, but their presence did not go far beyond traditional ideas about the role of women in public life.
Copyright (c) 2025 Przemysław Wojciechowski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Joseph presents a consistent image of King Agrippa II in his works, which has evolved. In the Jewish War, written first, the assessment of the ruler is moderately positive, because it is not devoid of critical accents. At the same time, Josephus tries not to write about all events that may show the king in an even worse light, thus building him limited credit among influential readers. Over time, however, he came under deeper criticism, which had its source and justification in the ruler's failure to meet the expectations placed on him. In the Jewish Antiquities, when the ruler failed Josephus' expectations of playing the role of patron of the Jewish community and religion, there is a narrative that does not hide his incompetence and selfishness. At the same time, the positive image of Agrippa present in the Autobiography has the character of a literary convention in which Josephus speaks kindly about the king because they have a common opponent, Justus of Tiberias. Consequently, it does not destroy the general view of Agrippa as an inept and alien ruler to the Jews, whose rule did not turn out to be a continuation of the reign of Agrippa I, but seemed to be a closing moment for the history of the dynasty initiated by its oppressive founder, Herod.
Copyright (c) 2025 Wojciech Bejda http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Physical Activity of Pregnant women in the Light of Ancient Texts
This article analyses the importance of physical activity for pregnant women from a historical perspective. Ancient authors such as Aristotle, Plutarch and Soranus of Ephesus emphasised the benefits of moderate physical exercise for the well-being of the mother and a successful pregnancy, while warning against excessive exertion. Their observations, based on intuition and limited empirical evidence, are consistent with the results of contemporary research. Contemporary research confirms that regular, appropriately adapted physical activity reduces the risk of pregnancy complications such as gestational diabetes and hypertension, and also facilitates childbirth and a faster return to full activity after delivery. The convergence of ancient recommendations with modern medical guidelines demonstrates the enduring value of physical activity as an important component of a healthy lifestyle during pregnancy.
Copyright (c) 2025 Anna Tatarkiewicz http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Emperor Hadrian's Criminal Policy on Combating Crimes Against Slaves and its Impact on the Concept of Roman Property Law
The aim of this article is to determine the impact that Emperor Hadrian's policy on combating criminal offenses committed by Roman owners against slaves had on the understanding and scope of the concept of property rights in Roman private law. The criminal policy was caused by the cruelty and prevalence of this type of crime and was implemented to protect slaves, deriving from the Roman idea of humanitas. The treatment of slaves, such as, in particular, killing them without the consent of a judge - an official, abusing them in various ways, selling them to gladiator school owners and pimps, were defined as crimes and prohibited. The main means of achieving the goal of improving the situation of slaves were imperial constitutions: edicts, rescripts, and decrees. Thanks to Hadrian's criminal policy, we can speak of a specific type of ownership known to Roman private law. This type refers to ‘ownership of slaves’, which differs significantly from full ownership, as Roman owners no longer had full power over them.
Copyright (c) 2025 Krzysztof Amielańczyk http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Eurypylos and Other Mythical Heroes of Pergamum in the Numismatic Sources
In the coinage of Pergamum, specific figures from the mythical past personified the tradition of the city’s founding. According to the mythical tales, Telephos and Pergamos were the founder (ktistes) and eponymous heroes. The coins minted in Pergamum during the reign of Emperor Hadrian (117–138) depict another mythical hero, i.e. Eurypylos. In this paper, the author attempts to analyse this motif, which is the only evidence of the presence of Eurypylos in Roman provincial coinage. The background is a fragment of Pausanias’ oeuvre and, above all, the multifaceted founding tradition promoted in the coinage of Pergamum.
Copyright (c) 2025 Agata Aleksandra Kluczek http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Relief with Caracalla and Julia Domna from National Museum in Warsaw – a Proposal of the Interpretation
The article proposes a new interpretation of the relief with depictions of Caracalla and Julia Domna from the National Museum in Warsaw. The scene finds references in earlier Roman iconography, and therefore refers to a recognizable system of communication, although as a result of certain stylistic treatments, differences in its functioning may be suspected. The pieces of weaponry gathered on the tropajon refer to the Dacians, which allows hypothesizing that the depiction was made to present Caracalla as a ‘new Trajan’. The element with which the emperor crowns the tropaion should be interpreted as the cap of the Dacian aristocracy, whose social rank Caracalla abolished by granting citizenship to the free inhabitants of the empire, making them symbolically equal to the imperial power. At the same time, the reference to Trajan foretells the expected success in the Parthian expedition. The above considerations allow us to propose dating the relief to 214 and the place of its origin to be identified as Dacia.
Copyright (c) 2025 Anita Smyk, Patryk Skupniewicz http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The discovery in 2020 in the northern part of Mainz of a statue of the goddess Salus with an inscription mentioning canabari(i) shed new light on the issue of the settlement (canabae) located near the legionary camp and its inhabitants. This is the fifth epigraphic text referring to this issue. It is interesting to note that the famous Great Mainz Jupiter Column (Große Mainzer Jupitersäule), erected around 60 AD and funded, according to the inscription on it, by the canaba[rii], is located near the site of the discovery. We can assume that in both cases (1, 2) we are dealing with residents of the local settlement. The inscriptions attest to its continuous settlement over a period of almost two hundred years, which is a big surprise for researchers. Only one more inscription (3) is dated (year 255), while the others (4, 5) do not meet this condition. It should also be emphasized that only two inscriptions (3, 4) can be linked to the immediate vicinity of the legionary fort, but they were found in rubble waste, not in situ. One (5) was found as far as 8 km from the fort, in what is now Mainz-Finthen. It is also important that none of the texts contain the term canabae, e.g. in the form canabae legionis, ad canabas, etc. In the epigraphic material from Mogontiacum, we are therefore dealing only with the name of a community. These are the inhabitants of canabae, who are referred to as canabarii (1, 2, 4, 5) or canabenses (3). The determination of their actual formal and legal status remains an open question.
Copyright (c) 2025 Leszek Mrozewicz http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Gentes senatoriae Imperii Romani – Annii Italici Honorati
The purpose of this article is to present the history of the senatorial family of Annii Italici Honorati and its representatives: L. Annius Italicus Honoratus (father), L. Annius Italicus (Gavidius) [Torqu?]atus (son), Annius Honoratus (son), Annia Italica (daughter), L. Annius Italicus Rutilianus (grandson). The key figures were homo novus L. Annius Italicus Honoratus and patricius L. Annius Italicus (Gavidius) [Torqu?]atus. Within two generations, the gens had achieved patrician status. The turning point in the family's path to the political elite came in the year 238 (the Year of the Six Emperors). At that time, Annius Italicus Gavidius Torquatus was appointed quaestor on the recommendation of the emperor (candidatus Augusti), and his father and father-in-law took an active part in the work of the college XX viri rei publicae curandae.The promotion of the Annii Italici Honorati was not, however, solely the result of individual merit – affinities with influential gentes also played an important role. The Annii were supported by the Bellicii, the Claudii Attici and the Rutilii Crispini, confirming the importance of family alliances in the political life of the Roman Empire.
Copyright (c) 2025 Danuta Okoń http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
New Aureus of Roman Empress Herennia Etruscilla Found in Gąski (Kuyavia, Poland)
The article concerns a hitherto unpublished coin find from Gąski (Inowrocław County, Gniewkowo distr.), discovered in 2009 by archeologists from the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. Aureus in the barbarised type was struck during the reign of Emperor Trajan Decius for his wife, Herennia Etruscilla. The coin has a hole typical of aureus found in Barbaricum, indicating its extra-monetary use. It belongs to a group of only a few coins of this type found in the area of the Przeworsk culture, where it ended up as part of the loot most likely as a result of the Romans losing the battle against the Goths at Abrittus in 251 AD, when the emperor himself was killed.
Copyright (c) 2025 Katarzyna Balbuza, Józef Bednarczyk http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Port of Seleucia Pieria in the 4th Century AD
The aim of this article is to attempt to locate and reconstruct the extent of the engineering work undertaken during the reigns of Emperors Diocletian (285–305 AD) and Constantius II (337–361 AD) at the seaport of Seleucia Pieria, Syria. Accordingly, the article also aims to determine the state of the port infrastructure and the utility of the port of Seleucia in the fourth century AD. The article analyses various ancient and Byzantine sources, with key texts by the rhetor Libanius, mainly Speech XI (“In the Praise of Antioch”) and Speech XX (“To Emperor Theodosius. On Reconciliation”), as well as selected letters by Libanius and rhetorical exercises. The article also discusses various hypotheses and theories of contemporary authors, thus providing an overview of the state of knowledge to date and identifying research perspectives.
Copyright (c) 2025 Paweł Filipczak http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
„Waiting for the King” – Some Remarks on the Coronation of Shapur II
Shapur II was the longest-reigning ruler of the Sasanian Empire. According to the legendary tradition, he became a king of Iran while still in his mother’s womb. The study analyzes information on Shapur II’s family connections contained in source accounts, especially those not related to official Iranian tradition. The romantic story of Shapur II’s coronation appears to have been taken from the Kayanid epics, describing the seizure of power by Dara, son of Humay and Bahman, in order to “cover” the brutal struggle between court factions after the death of Hormazd II.
Copyright (c) 2025 Katarzyna Maksymiuk http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Macedonius, Bishop of Constantinople – the Villain of Socrates' Ecclesiastical History
Socrates of Constantinople devoted much space in his Ecclesiastical History to Macedonius. In it, he portrayed the bishop of the eastern imperial capital in black colors. He saw him as a heresiarch and attributed to him the brutal persecution of his religious opponents, including murder, torture and the demolition of churches. Many modern scholars seem to accept this extremely negative picture of Macedonius as true. The author attempted to clarify whether the picture presented could have been truthful and whether Socrates had any reason to create such a negative image of Macedonius.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sławomir Bralewski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Places of Veneration of St. Ignatius of Antioch of Syrian Antioch
The purpose of this article is to show the places of worship of St. Ignatius of Antioch of Syrian Antioch, in the light of ancient historical accounts. First, the figure of St. Ignatius of Antioch as it emerges from ancient source accounts was shown. A detailed analysis and critical evaluation of these messages made it possible to conclude that little is actually known about his life, and the most important information about him is taken from his letters. Next, some attention was paid to the appearance of St. Ignatius’ relics in Antioch. On the other hand, in the main part of the study, the source information on two places of worship of St. Ignatius – the sub-Antiochian Koimeterion and the former Antiochian temple of Tyche – was analyzed in detail and critically evaluated. The analysis and criticism of the messages allowed important conclusions to be drawn: 1) St. Ignatius’ relics were moved three times (from Rome to the suburban cemetery at the Daphne Gate of Antioch; from the sub-Antiochian Koimeterion to the former temple of Tyche; from Antioch to Rome); 2) the most important from the point of view of state and ecclesiastical policy seems to be the second translation testifying to the significant changes that took place in the mentality and especially in the religious culture of the Antiocheans, since Theodosius II not only expressed the fact of the empire’s departure from the old religion of the Romans, but above all showed the growing power of Christianity, which began to dominate in all dimensions of social life; 3) by depositing the relics of St. Ignatius within the city, Theodosius II wanted to provide Antioch with the spiritual protection and protection of a powerful protector, and raise Antioch’s profile on ecclesiastical grounds; 4) after the Arab invasion in 637, when the relics of St. Ignatius were taken to Rome, his cult in Antioch faded.
Copyright (c) 2025 Piotr Szczur http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Christology of Liberatus of Carthage (Relationship to Neo-Chalcedonism)
Liberatus – archdeacon of the Carthaginian Church lived in the 6th century through the intensification of Christological controversies during the reign of Emperor Justinian and the theological dominance of neo-Chalcedonism in Constantinople and other centers of the empire. In his only known contemporary work, Breviarium, he attempted to defend the so-called „Three Chapters”, condemned by the imperial edict and the decision of the Second Council of Constantinople, showing the issue of their orthodoxy against the background of the development of radical Christological movements: nestorianism and eutychanism. The following article analyzes the work of the African priest in terms of his Christology, focusing on his attitude to neo-Chalcedonism, through the prism of the reception of Cyrillic Christology, the figures of Antiochian theologians from the 5th century and the theopaschite formula.
Copyright (c) 2025 Arkadiusz Urbaniec http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Signs from the 9th Century, Inspired by Greek Letters, Found on the Vistula
In 1986 during the archaeological excavations by the Institute of Archaeology of the University of Warsaw directed by professor Jerzy Gąssowski at the site of Podebłocie, three small fragmentary objects of clay were found. On these so-called ‘tablets’ there are signs which are similar to the letters of Greek alphabet (ill. 2,3,4). Finds of that kind, unexpected in that area, excited a lot of interest of Polish mediaevalists.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ewa Łukaszewicz, Adam Łukaszewicz http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Duel Between Rostam and Sohrāb. King-Pahlavan Relations in a Historical and Cultural Perspective
Duels are one of the main elements of Shāhnāma by Abu'l-Qāsem Ferdowsī. Not only do they serve as exciting entertainment, they also reveal many intriguing aspects of the culture of pre-Islamic Iran. This paper analyzes one of the most important one-on-one fights in The Persian Book of King, i.e. the duel between Rostam and Sohrāb. However, I do not focus on the tragedy stemming from Rostam's unintentional filicide but on the relationship between the king and the pahlavan. The duel brilliantly demonstrates the relationship of the ruler with the subject and the subject with the ruler in pre-Islamic Iran, providing a basis for reflection on the topic.
Copyright (c) 2025 Joanna Szklarz http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Generosity of Bolesław II in the Narratives of Gall and Master Vincent: Virtue and Transgression
This article analyses the narratives of Gall Anonim and Wincenty Kadłubek concerning the generosity of Bolesław II. Both authors considered this trait to be a distinguishing feature of a good ruler. Gall justifies Bolesław II's nickname, Szczodry (Generous), with a story about an anonymous cleric complaining about his poverty, whom the king generously rewarded by filling his cloak with riches. Master Wincenty repeated this story, but with very significant modifications. In both versions, the story carries a message about the qualities of a good ruler and a moral lesson of a broader scope. They consider issues related to both material goods and fame. Bolesław's behaviour, as reported by chroniclers, reveals a trait of transgression. The analysis serves to highlight this and to explore the meanings that medieval authors attributed to this situation.
Copyright (c) 2025 Michał Tomaszek http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Lay Confraternity of the Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem (1099–1187)
The article concerns the identification of the lay confreres of the Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem. During the analysis, the identity of at least twenty-four confraternity members was established, both men (16) and women (8). The confraternity members of the Jerusalem’s Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre were recruited from all Latin strata of Outremer society, and among them, it is possible to identify members of the royal family, the largest vassals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and representatives of the burgesses and minor knights. The article shows that the quantitative development of the confraternity of the Chapter of the Holy Sepulchre took place gradually from the 20s and 30s of the 12th c. after the canons had adopted the principles of community life according to the Rule of St Augustine. The development of the congregation, as well as the associated religious brotherhood, was interrupted by the conflict with Saladin and the loss of Jerusalem. Based on the analysis presented, a picture of the society and the religious and political culture of Outremer between 1099 and 1187 is provided.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tomasz Pełech http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Devil and the Afterlife in the Light of Fragments of the 13th-Century Cistercian Book of Miracles from the Library of the Cistercian Abbey in Kołbacz
This article analyses the surviving fragments of a 13th-century Cistercian book of miracles from the library of the Cistercian abbey in Kołbacz, stored in the Archives of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw. These fragments are a source unknown in scholarly circulation, but important from the perspective of the culture and spirituality of the Cistercian Order. The article will address the issue of the devil, demons, the hereafter and the theme of the monks' struggle with demons. It will also try to indicate whether the visions of evil and supernatural forces contained in the surviving fragments fit into a broader context, consistent with Cistercian interpretation.
Copyright (c) 2025 Edyta Pluta-Saladra http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Medieval Performative Recreations of Chivalric Past. The Archaeology of Modern Historical Reenactment
The aim of the article is to investigate the phenomenon of recreating the glorious past of chivalry in the High and Late Middle Ages in reference to scholarly reflexion concerning the modern historical reenactment. The author discusses a series of accounts testifying to the commonness of the performances during which the chivalric past was recreated. The most informative of these stories and examples relate to the institution of Round Tables – the tournaments which directly appealed to the Arthurian past of chivalry, as the adventures of the King Arthur’s knights were perceived among knighthood and aristocracy. In the discussion of these interesting accounts, a series of topics common to both the medieval recreations of the past and modern historical reenactments is considered. These include the significance of material objects used to come into contact with past (such as gear and attire), the markers used to invoke heroic identities of figures from the past, as well as the role of experiences (characteristic of combative sports) involved in the recreations and reenactments of the past. The role of the latter in acquiring the sense of connection with the past is discussed in reference to the notions of ‘commitment’ and ‘flow’ coined by the researchers from the field of the anthropology of sport. As it appears, the social practices concerning recreating the past could be perceived by medieval men as very serious pursuits, communicating important ideological meanings and arising certain obligations. The comparison between medieval and modern practices of the kind in question reveals both close similarities and significant differences between both phenomena. Ultimately, these differences point to the aspects of medieval perceptions of the past, as both closer, more perceptible and compelling, even though one may call it an imaginary one.
Copyright (c) 2025 Wojciech Michalski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Chełm necropolis – Medieval and Modern Town Cemeteries in Archaeological Research
The subject of the article are Christian cemeteries discovered during archaeological research in the area of the town of Chełm, dating back to the medieval and modern period – from the 13th to the end of the 18th century. Written sources from that period mention 12 Christian churches in Chełm, of which only four have survived to the present day. As a result of archaeological research, 11 burial sites have been identified which are dated within a specific chronological framework. Several cemeteries were also located in places that are not currently sacred spaces. Burials discovered in the very centre of the town may be linked to 13th–15th century temples, while graves located in the suburbs, outside the former city walls, were linked to several temples mentioned from the 15th–16th century, which no longer exist. However, due to the small extent of the discoveries, they require further archaeological research. Their more complete identification would allow to more accurately reconstruct the former spatial layout of Chełm in the medieval and modern periods, as well as to supplement the knowledge of the burial customs of its inhabitants.
Copyright (c) 2025 Monika Maziarczuk http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Kozłówka Before the Zamoyski Family. Owners of the Estate in the 15th–18th Centuries
The aim of this article is to present an overview of the owners of the Kozłówek estate, starting from 1405, when it belonged to the Gorajski family, until 1799, when it passed into the hands of the Zamoyski family. An effort has been made to clarify inaccuracies in the relatively sparse literature and to fill in quite significant gaps, mainly concerning the 16th and 17th centuries.
Copyright (c) 2025 Wiesław Bondyra http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Cracovian Burgher Kasper Suski de casa Castiglione (d. 1589) as an Estatesman in the Duchy of Zator
The son of the royal stonemason Nicolas Castiglione (d. 1545), who came from Florence to Kraków, Kasper entered into family connections with the nobility of Zator and Oświęcim through the purchase in 1554 of Sucha and Stryszawa, and then through his marriage in 1556 with Jadwiga, daughter of Stanisław Słupski and Anna née Grzymułtowska. In spite of Adam Kamiński's thorough study, the figure of Kasper as a bourgeois as well as a goldsmith from Kraków and a property owner turns out to be still not fully known. Thus, the settlement processes or cultural changes taking place thanks to Castiglione-Suski have been overlooked, and hence the picture of the 16th century in local communities is still rather hazy. Meanwhile, thanks to people like the Cracovian burgher Kasper, Renaissance fashions and patterns of thought, as well as Reformation trends, reached the Silesian district established in 1564. Complementing the existing knowledge on the person and activities of Kasper Suski, the author presented his family circle, his accumulated wealth, and the network of mutual relations with the nobility of the Zator and Oświęcim principalities (mainly the neighbouring estates).
Copyright (c) 2025 Mirosław Płonka http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Native origo gentis in Norwegian Historiography of the Modern Period (16th–17th Centuries)
Works on the new Nordic history in sixteenth century was focused primarily on helping modern readers acquaint themselves with medieval texts, mainly the Heimskringla by Snorri Sturlusson (13th c.). It was due to the fact that Norse sagas were written in the Old Norse, norrønt, at that time already forgotten. The translations to Danish-Norwegian were produced by Mattis Størssøn and Peder C. Friis. In this way modern scholars were able to study a version of ethnogenetic theory illustrating the descent of Norwegian kings from Odin. Both scholars slightly modified the translations. In their independent works presenting the topographical description of Norway with short historical introductions, Absalon Beyer and Friis ignored Snorris vision, pointing rather at eponym Nor, only briefly mentioned in some sources. The 17th-century scholar world in Denmark-Norway familiarized itself with Prologue to Snorri’s Edda and short, entirely focused on Norwegian ethnogenesis in the texts in the manuscript Flatøybok (14th c.). This became an inspiration to historians working at the end of the century, first and foremost Thormod Torfæus. In his book Historia Rerum Norvegicarum he presented a vision of Norwegian origins as a process of creating the people through the amalagamation of four groups: the Giants (Noah’s offspring), first group of the Goths, then Odin and his Æsir (using euhemerism the historian saw them all as humans), and second group of the Goths, led by Nor, succesively arriving at Scandinavia.
Copyright (c) 2025 Krystyna Szelągowska http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Seal and Coat of Arms of the City in the Urban Historical Literature of Western Pomerania in the Early Modern Period. Word and Image in Building Urban Identity
The article deals with the interaction of image and word in the construction of a sense of urban identity among the citizens of the cities of the former Duchy of Pomerania in the modern period. It analyses texts on the history and symbolism of the iconography of city seals and coats of arms recorded in the historical urban literature, i.e. in texts on the history of the city written by representatives of their bourgeoisie. In the case of Western Pomerania, such records were found only for Szczecin, Gryfice, Trzebiatów and Kołobrzeg, and for a few other towns – traces of the existence of such stories recorded in the late 18th century. The article also aims to integrate West Pomeranian sources typical of traditional source studies into the circle of methodology related to the history of social communication.
Copyright (c) 2025 Agnieszka Gut http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Interpreting the Reverses of three Imperial Coins from Phrygian Apamea between the 17th and Early 20th Centuries
The aim of this article is to analyse the interpretation of scenes on the reverses of three coins from the Roman Empire period, originating from Phrygian Apamea. Between the 17th century and the beginning of the 20th century, three issues of these coins were known, which were made during the reign of Septimius Severus, Macrinus and Philip the Arab. The prevailing view is that the reverses of these coins present a flood scene, which refers either to the Greek myth of Deucalion or to the biblical story of Noah. In addition to these two ways of interpretation, several other explanations of this scene have been proposed. The aim of these analyses is to present these interpretations, taking into account the connections between them.
Copyright (c) 2025 Piotr Kochanek http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Struggle of the Towianski Family Over the Inheritance Following the Death of Cardinal Michał Stefan Radziejowski in 1705.
After the death of the Primate of Poland, Michał Stefan Radziejowski, in 1705, the members of Towiański family became involved in court proceedings, which continued until the 1720s, concerning the deceased's inheritance and settlements with legacies. The reason was to make Katarzyna Konstancja née Niszczycka Towiańska, the voivode of Łęczyca, the depositary of movable and immovable goods, and the one responsible for paying sums and issuing legacies mainly to monasteries and chapters – Łowicz, Uniejów and Gniezno. The Towiańskis were forced to cede some of the estates of the deceased hierarch to people related to him, including: the Radziejów estate for the Prażmowski family and the Kryłów estate for the Izbiński family. Both the first and second circumstances involved the Towiański family in long court battles. They resulted from a rather literal treatment of the provisions on taking over all goods, as well as the reluctance to regulate payments to clergy due to either the loss of funds or their lack of coverage in the deceased’s treasury. A very important problem was also the import of a silver altar set, ordered by Radziejowski from the workshop of Guillaume Jacob. The work presents court proceedings pending before the Crown Tribunal and the case of bringing the mentioned altar set to Gniezno.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jarosław Pietrzak http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Educational Activity of the Piarist Order in the Lithuanian Province in the 18th Century
The article outlines the educational activities of the Piarist Order in the Lithuanian province in the 18th century. The curricula for each period are presented. The 18th century was an age of educational reforms and one of the first and most important was the reform of Father Stanisław Konarski, which also influenced the reform of Piarist schools in the Lithuanian province. From 1773, the Lithuanian Piarists began working according to the changes introduced by the Commission of National Education.
Copyright (c) 2025 Mariusz Ausz http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Between Dresden to Naples: Exploring the Impact of the Wettin Dynastic Network on Saxon-Napolitan Trade in the Mid-Eighteenth Century
This article explores the functioning of the Wettin dynastic network in the mid-eighteenth century and its impact on efforts to enhance Saxon-Napolitan trade. Through adept implementation of dynastic policies, representatives of the Wettin dynasty held positions at courts across Naples, Paris, Munich, and others, fostering close interrelations. A significant aspect of these relations involved the exchange of goods, including artworks, culinary items, and porcelain, which circulated between Dresden and other capital cities. Leveraging the dynastic network, attempts were made to boost the export of Saxon textiles and furniture to the Kingdom of Naples. While diplomats and merchants played pivotal roles, this endeavor ultimately faltered due to logistical and financial challenges.
Copyright (c) 2025 Katarzyna Kuras http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Image of English Physical Culture in Polish Literature up to 1795
The article presents a comprehensive analysis of themes related to English physical culture in Polish literature up to 1795. The aim of the research was to identify which elements of English physical culture appeared in Polish works of the era and whether any of these elements were particularly popular. An attempt was also made to determine the influence of English physical culture on Old Polish customs and traditions related to physical culture. The source material included travel accounts, memoirs, press, and other contemporary works. The first part discusses English physical culture in the accounts of Old Polish travelers, the second part analyzes the presence of English physical culture in the press of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth period, with an emphasis on horse racing and associated gambling. The third part is dedicated to themes of English physical culture appearing in other contemporary works, including geographical literature and stage plays. The analysis reveals that English physical culture appeared in almost all contemporary literary forms, although the audience for these works was primarily the upper social classes. The source analysis also indicates that while some English customs related to physical culture were reflected in Polish practices, this influence was limited and mainly affected the aristocracy. However, there is no evidence of the widespread adoption of these practices in pre-partition Poland. The article concludes with a reflection on the limited and impermanent nature of English physical culture’s influence, which only began to gain broader social acceptance, albeit not without resistance, in the latter half of the nineteenth century.
Copyright (c) 2025 Arkadiusz Włodarczyk, Mateusz Rozmiarek http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Foundation of Rev. Franciszek Ksawery Jabłonowski for the Daughters of Charity in Przeworsk. The Outline of the Village Kalembina’s History in the 19th Centur
In 1816, the parish priest from Dobrzechów, Rev. Franciszek Ksawery Jabłonowski, bequeathed Kalembina to the Daughters of Charity from Przeworsk through his last will. This property became their possession in 1817 because of the priest’s death. Due to the significant distance between Kalembina and Przeworsk as well as problematic tenants, the Daughters of Charity, against the will of the benefactor, attempted to sell the donated village. After overcoming initial difficulties, the property was subdivided. The income from the sale was irretrievably lost as a result of World War I. The article discusses the figure of the benefactor – Rev. Franciszek Ksawery Jabłonowski and the history of the village during its management by the Daughters of Charity.
Copyright (c) 2025 Andrzej Edward Godek http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Freedom of Printing in the Kingdom of Poland During the Period When Józef Kalasanty Szaniawski was the Head of Censorship
The aim of the article is to analyze the actions undertaken by Józef Kalasanty Szaniawski during the period when he was the head of censorship in the Kingdom of Poland. Szaniawski is a figure that arouses deep controversy, including both his political attitude and the nature of his reflection. The author attempted to determine the extent to which the influence of Szaniawski's intellectual fascinations, especially his philosophical views, translated into the educational and censorship policy of the Kingdom's authorities. The author believes that J.K. Szaniawski, being an extremely strict censor, was guided more by his own conservative worldview than by the recommendations of the partitioning authorities.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sebastian Paczos http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Effects of Limiting the Role of the Self-Government of the Nobility in the Lithuanian-Belarusian Lands in the Light of Changes in the Composition of the Nobility Courts in 1832–1855
The article consists of two parts. The first part presents the legal and constitutional changes and the process of assimilation of the judicial system in the north-western gubernias of the Russian Empire after the fall of the November Uprising. It also addresses the new rules imposed on the self-government of the nobility and the extent of Tsarist intervention in the staffing of court officials in the inter-insurrectionary period. The second part characterises the environment of the officials of the self-government of the nobility. Court clerks of selected districts of the Vilnius Governorate – a total of 169 persons – are analysed. The source basis for the analysis is the descriptions of the employees' service status, which made it possible to determine the characteristics of the group: origin, education, wealth, achieved ranks, awards, decorations. The collective portrait of the group of court clerks shows the extent to which the self-government of the nobility was restricted in the partitioned lands.
Copyright (c) 2025 Maria Korybut-Marciniak, Jolanta Kowalik http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
„Our peculiar institution” – the Problem of Slavery in the Political Thought of John Caldwell Calhoun
John C. Calhoun was an American statesman, political theorist, senator, secretary of war and seventh vice-president of the United States from 1825 to 1832. Calhoun began his political career as a nationalist, moderniser, supporter of a strong federal government and protective tariffs. He later became a Southern leader and a major proponent of states' rights, limited government and nullification. During his political career, he defended slavery as part of the Southern social structure and the basis of the agricultural economy. While other Southern politicians justified slavery as a ‘necessary evil‘, Calhoun, in his famous Senate speech in 1837, stated that slavery was a “positive good”. In this article, the author explores the basis of this Calhoun stance. He wonders whether Calhoun's intricate political theory functioned only as a means to preserve slavery, or whether Calhoun was compelled to defend it because of the South's particular social and economic circumstances.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tomasz Tulejski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Russia vis-à-vis Poland in the Light of the Journalism of the émigré „Wiadomości Polskie”
The article deals with Russia's attitude towards Poland in the light of the journalism of one of the most eminent journals of the Great Emigration, edited by two eminent figures of Polish culture, science and politics – Julian Klaczko and Walerian Kalinka – Wiadomości Polskie. The magazine painted a picture of Russia – Poland's eternal adversary. The governments of individual tsars may have differed in their methods of fighting Poles, some may have been even milder, but they invariably aimed at the same thing, namely the destruction of all manifestations of Polishness. It was not only the Russian state that was the enemy of the Poles, but the entire Russian nation, and this was practically without exception. For it was a struggle between two civilisations: the intellectually and morally highly developed Latin civilisation, whose foundation was the Catholic faith, and the barbaric Russian civilisation, formed under the influence of Mongol rule in Rus. The journal showed the specificity of the rule of Tsar Alexander II, proving that he was not at all a friend of Poland, which unfortunately the Poles themselves sometimes allowed themselves to be fooled by.
Copyright (c) 2025 Mateusz Piotr Gancewski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Socio-economic Aspects of Economic Migration from the Lands of Northern Mazovia to the United States of America at the Turn of the 20th Century
At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the lands of northern Mazovia, part of the Płock and Łomża governorates, were struck by one of the largest waves of economic migration across the ocean,. Pursued mainly by the rural population, economic migration was a consequence of socio-economic changes in the countryside of the Kingdom of Poland after the enfranchisement reform of 1864 and the creation of a significant number of small farms that did not provide adequate support for peasant families. The most popular destination for overseas migration of the inhabitants of Northern Mazovia was the United States, where it was possible to earn the most income. Migration across the ocean was usually permanent, which meant individuals would leave the homeland irretrievably, however, some people would as well return to the country with significant amounts of money. The author attempts to determine the extent of migration from the Płock and Łomża provinces to the United States, which is not an easy due to the fact some did not migrate legally. The article refers to the role of emigration agents in organizing transfers of groups of migrants across the border with East Prussia, their transports by rail to German ports and travel across the ocean. It analyzes the possibilities of employment (mainly in an industry) of migrants from Mazovia in the United States, estimates the amounts of money earned and its use after returning to the country. Much space in the article is devoted to the attitudes of the landed gentry and the clergy towards emigration, and especially to the multiple consequences; socio-economic and cultural, of economic emigration to the USA.
Copyright (c) 2025 Janusz Szczepański http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Religious Imagination in Letters and Memoirs of Peasants of the Kingdom of Poland of the Turn of the 20th Century (1881–1914)
The article presents the religious imaginations of the peasants of the Kingdom of Poland at the turn of the 20th century. The detailed topics addressed in the text are the visions of God (Father, Jesus, Holy Spirit), Mary, other saints, as well as evil and good spirits. Those collections of letters and memoirs of peasants, which contain information on religious life, were used as a source base for the inquiry. Since the last decades of the 19th century, they have constituted a large enough corpus of materials to allow for more extensive research on their basis, although it should be noted that their authors constituted a rather peculiar group compared to the general peasant population of the period. The article shows in which debates about the 19th-century countryside the egodocuments can help – including the one devoted to fatalism in religious mentality.
Copyright (c) 2025 Łukasz Kożuchowski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
People and Periodicals of the New York Polish Community 1886–1900
The article is devoted to the description and analysis of the development dynamics of the Polish press in New York published in 1886–1900. It includes periodicals of various ideological profiles: general information, socialist, political, religious, satirical and humorous. Particular attention was paid to the journalistic milieu of the Polish community in New York, showing its ideological differences and conflicts arising from them. This group included people of different generations, social backgrounds and sometimes extremely different views. Thus, it reflected the entire cross-section of the social structure of the Polish diaspora in America at the end of the 19th century. The analysis of the press material and biographies of the editors, publishers and columnists of the New York Polish community enabled the presentation of the specificity of this milieu, accentuating features typical of Polish emigration located not only in New York but also in Brooklyn, New Jersey and the surrounding areas. Reflection on the above issue brings us closer to an answer to the question of how people taking on a leadership role shaped, in the space of one of the largest urban centres in the world, the specific and dynamic social image of the Polish diaspora on the Hudson and its environs.
Copyright (c) 2025 Daniel Kiper, Janusz Gerasik http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Formation of the Association of Teaching Priests in Galicia in the Autonomous Era
This article aims to present the process of the formation of the Association of Teaching Priests in Galicia in the autonomous era. It presents a whole spectrum of issues related to the formation of this organisation between 1897 and 1899, i.e. from the original idea of the formation of the association to the formal approval of its statutes. It provides a broader context behind the efforts undertaken in this matter, showing the attitude of the teaching priests of the Galician dioceses towards the emerging association, the church and state authorities, and the Lviv milieu associated with the „Gazeta Kościelna” („Church Newspaper”) as well as the personal involvement of Fr Walenty Gadowski (a teacher and catechetical expert) in the creation of the Polish professional organisation of teaching priests and Catholic educators, the first of its kind in the Polish lands during the period of partitions.
Copyright (c) 2025 Roman Ceglarek http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Between the Matilda Effect and Scientific Success. Mileva Miarić versus Maria Sklodowska-Curie
The author considers the problem of conditions accompanying women’s careers in science. It focuses on the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, but most of the internal and external factors influencing the position of scientists remain relevant to this day. On the example of heroines from Central and Eastern Europe; Maria Skłodowska-Curie and Mileva Marić-Einstein were shown what supported and ultimately determined the huge success of the first one and influenced the failure of the second one. The indicated reasons, apart from intellectual potential, abilities, self-denial and great motivation, included: support from parents, partnership in marriage, shared passions and scientific work with the husband, kindness of parents-in-law, etc. The author based her considerations on memoir materials as well as Polish and English-language monographs and scientific articles on the history of science that have recently been published. She carefully followed the discussions surrounding Mileva Marić's participation in Albert Einstein's research and discoveries
Copyright (c) 2025 Jolanta Kolbuszewska http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
In the Shadow of Russification, the School Strike of 1905 and World War I – Education in the Kingdom of Poland at the Turn of the 19th and 20th Centuries in the Light of Manuscript Sources from the Collection of the National Library (Selected Problems)
The aim of the article is to present the effect of socio-political changes taking place in the Kingdom of Poland at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries on the course of the educational processes of children and young people of school age. It was a period of increased Russification, intensified homeschooling, the school strike of 1905 and the related development of Polish private schools, and finally, the outbreak of World War I, which destabilised the education of many students. The source database for the article are the unpublished diaries from the collection of the National Library in Warsaw. 29 manuscripts were selected which met the main selection criterion – their authors were educated in the period from the 1890s to the time World War I ended in the territories of the Russian partition. These authors represent various social groups, from peasants', workers' and craftsmen's families to the intelligentsia and landed gentry, which allows for a broader comparison of the specificity of the models of education preferred and practised by them. The analysis of the source material included both homeschooling and institutional education. The analysed memoirs are documents of a private and personal nature, which subjectively present their authors' experiences in the context of political and social changes at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, including the manifestations of modernity characteristic of that period, often standing in contradiction of sorts with nostalgia for the tradition of the past.
Copyright (c) 2025 Monika Nawrot-Borowska, Agnieszka Wałęga http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
American Universalism and Poland in Central-Eastern Europe in the 20th Century
The article presents the importance of liberal universalism in the policy of the United States in relation to selected political and territorial problems of Poland and Central-Eastern Europe. From the end of World War I until the fall of the „Iron Curtain”, the U.S. tied the condition of its own liberal-democratic system with the spread of progressive, democratic and liberal values around the world. This liberal ideal of „emancipation of humanity” included concepts of perpetual peace, democracy, self-determination, social progress, economic development, free trade, and human rights, building thus a specific connection of American foreign policy with morality and economics. The objective is to demonstrate that universalism shaped the American view of Poland and Central and Eastern Europe as a liberal „laboratory of history” of the 20th century at the crossroads of empires, which was also a space of conflicts, revolutions and nationalisms that conflicted with American universalism.
Copyright (c) 2025 Krzysztof Siwek http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Facing the Fall of the Empire. Russia in Polish Political thought in the Last Months of World War I
This article attempts to discuss the dominant references in the Polish political thought to the situation in Russia in the final months of World War I. The author took as the starting point the moment when the Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Brest with the Central Powers, which took place on 3 March 1918. In Polish terms, this separatist peace was seen as humiliating for Russia and at the same time creating a new international situation in Central and Eastern Europe. The closing caesura of the article is in turn symbolically marked by the moment of rebirth of the independent Polish state. Undoubtedly, this created new circumstances in which Polish political reflection on Russian affairs was to be shaped from then on. Polish political reflection on Russia in the spring, summer and early autumn of 1918 focused on four main problems. Firstly, there was an attempt to find an answer to the question of the genesis of the Bolshevik coup. Secondly, an attempt was made to find out the essence of Bolshevism. The third question concerned the future of the Leninist movement and, in particular, possible scenarios related to the widely expected collapse of communist rule in Russia. Last but not least, the question of the impact of Russian events on the fate of the Polish cause and, more broadly, on the situation in the region and in Europe as a whole was considered.
Copyright (c) 2025 Grzegorz Zackiewicz http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The article synthesizes views on the ideas of democracy. The subject of consideration was the concepts formulated by Wincenty Witos (1874–1945) relating to democracy over the period from the time of partitions, the struggle for independence, the reborn Polish state with a democratic system and the transition to authoritarianism. The postulates described and pointed out by Witos, in their general aspects, are still relevant today, and therefore the solutions he proposed are worth considering even today. Undoubtedly, these include democratization of power structures, efficient management of the state, which he combined with high qualifications of administrative staff, observance of civil rights and freedoms, propagation of patriotic ideas and education in the spirit of love for the fatherland. His thought was based on the conviction that true democracy must grow out of the people and serve the people and not elites or individuals striving for absolute power.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ewelina Podgajna http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The reception of classical cultures in texts other than belles-lettres or, more generally, the so-called high art, is rarely analysed. One of the most common ways of referring to ancient models was the use of exempla – the names of heroes who were inextricably linked to specific values. In practice, it was sufficient to refer to the name itself. One of such exempla was L. Quinctius Cincinnatus, a symbol of civic virtues – devotion to the state, selflessness, modesty and competence. Starting in the 18th century, when he became almost a secular saint, Cincinnatus found his way into public discourse in Europe and America. In Poland, he was typically compared to Tadeusz Kościuszko, and then in the first half of the 19th century, he became a symbol of the landowner-knight. With the restoration of independence, his original dimension as a symbol of a providential man returned. He was used in a perverse way by Józef Rappaport to ridicule Wincenty Witos in 1921. Rappaport's satire is also an example of the changing paradigm of using ancient models.
Copyright (c) 2025 Paweł Madejski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Josephine J. Mehlberg. Philosopher – Humanitarian – Mathematician
The paper describes the life and work of Pepi Spinner, Janina Suchodolska, and Josephine Mehlberg. Alongside multiple other findings, the article confirms the earlier identification of the three persons as one and the same woman. Pepi Spinner was Kazimierz Twardowski’s student and collaborator. Janina Suchodolska, as a spurious countess, worked during WWII in the structures of the Main Welfare Council and brought help to the prisoners of the Nazi Camp at Majdanek and shortly after WWII was active in Polish and international humanitarian organizations. And Josephine Mehlberg was Henryk Mehlberg’s wife and a professor of mathematics at Illinois Institute of Technology. Generally, the paper contributes to the history of philosophy and mathematics in pre-war Lviv, and to the history of the resistance during WWII, giving an example of people of Jewish origin who, for altruistic reasons, risked death helping Poles.
Copyright (c) 2025 Mariusz Pandura, Jan Zygmunt http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Wasted Opportunity? A Contribution to Sports in the State Police in the Years 1924–1939
This text is devoted to selected aspects of the use of sport by the Polish National Police in the years 1924–1939. The article was created primarily on the basis of archival sources held at the Archive of New Records in Warsaw and in the state archives in Lublin, Łódź and Poznań. Based on the above materials, issues related to the initiation of the sports movement in the ranks of the State Police, methods of physical activation of police officers and plans of the State Police Headquarters in the scope of using sports to strengthen the bonds of the police with society were raised. The text contains information on the territorial distribution of Police Sports Clubs, together with an indication of the reasons for the clear differences between the Silesian Voivodeship and other areas of the Second Republic of Poland. Particular attention was paid to the development of police sports in the interwar Lublin Voivodeship, an area with an average level of social and economic development, taking into account not only the city of Lublin but also peripheral areas such as the Lubartowski and Hrubieszowski Poviats. The analysis also did not omit factors favoring the potential egalitarianism of Police Sports Clubs.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jan Błachnio http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Members of the Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists in the Heavy Prison at the Holy Cross in the Second Polish Republic in the light of Polish Historical Sources
This article presents issues related to the stay in the Heavy Prison at Saint Cross of members of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists. The issues were presented through the prism of Polish historical sources. For this purpose, both archival materials collected in the State Archives in Kielce and extensive literature on the subject were used. Among the most famous members of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists in Heavy Prison in Saint Cross stayed, among others, Stepan Bandera or Mykola Klymyshyn. The purpose of this article was to attempt to fully present the stay of Ukrainians in Saint Cross Prison. Including the most famous group of OUN members- participants in the attack on the Minister of Internal Affairs Bronisław Pieracki.
Copyright (c) 2025 Bartosz Kułan http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Carpathian Sich – Origins, Fate and Legacy. The Armed Wing of the Carpathian Ukraine
Carpathian Sich, paramilitary, and sometimes military formation of autonomous Carpathian Ruthenia – Carpathian Ukraine was established 11 September1938, but grew up on the basis of pre-existing organization. Carpathian Sich quickly built up their political and military structures, in which he helped the influx of volunteers from Galicia and abroad. In strictly military played a major role Staff refugees and immigrants from Eastern Galicia, usually members of the OUN – Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists. Carpathian Sich National Defence Organisation (ONOKS) from the beginning to the end of its existence, struggled with a lack of weapons and troubles with adequate training of its members. Despite attempts, mainly political reasons did not come to an agreement with the Czech Republic, which would increase the potential Sich. ONOKS, in addition to units of the Czechoslovak army and border guard units, took part in the fight against Hungarian and Polish diversional (guerilla) groups. As a result of a tragic misunderstanding on the night of 13 on 14 March 1939 was in serving as the capital of the Veil of the bloody incidents between the branches of the federal army and the Sich. In those times there was a Hungarian attack and autonomous Ruthenia was proclaimed an independent Carpatho-Ukraine. Sich has been transformed into an army of the young state, taking an active part in the battles – especially the Krasne Pole, convicted by military weakness and international hopeless failure.
Copyright (c) 2025 Michał Jarnecki, Piotr Kołakowski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Clergymen from the Polish Territory Annexed by the Reich and Soviet Union in Exile in the Sandomierz Diocese at the Time of World War II
The paper deals with the fate of the Catholic Church priests who during World War II were in the Polish territory occupied by Nazi Germany. They were refugees from the areas where the first acts of war took place in September 1939 as well as the ones displaced later by German authorities after the Polish areas had been annexed by the Third Reich or coming from the areas occupied by the Soviet Union. Many of them found themselves in the Sandomierz Diocese which was within the borders of the General Government. Exiled clergymen were admitted to the parishes with the approval of the Sandomierz Diocese. They were provided with board and bed. In return they helped with pastoral duties. Their lives were complicated and the presence of some of them caused problems. Majority of them, however, fulfilled their responsibilities. Their profiles are presented in the paper as well as the ways in which they adapted to the new environment in the situation of German occupation.
Copyright (c) 2025 Szczepan Kowalik http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Organization of the Religious Life of Lublin Jews in the Years 1944–1989
The article has a microhistorical character and analyzes the organization of Jewish religious life in Lublin from 1944 to 1989. It presents the activities of Jewish religious organizations (the Jewish Religious Congregation and later the Religious Association of the Mosaic Faith in Poland) within the context of broader state policies, distinguishing three stages: the period of revival (1944–1949), a time of strict state control (1949–1968), and a decade of gradual decline (1968–1989). Documents created by or originating from the Lublin religious congregation have not survived in archives, so the attempt to reconstruct this issue primarily relied on existing documents from other Jewish organizations (CKŻP and TSKŻ) and correspondence with public administration authorities. The considerations were also supplemented with oral histories from the resources of the Grodzka Gate Centre and memoirs published in the magazine “Kol Lublin”.
Copyright (c) 2025 Teresa Klimowicz http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Times of the Pioneers of Education After World War II in the Light of the Memoirs of Helena Tyrankiewicz (1945–1947)
The article contains a critical analysis of the Memoirs of a well-known Polish teacher with a large didactic output stored in the Ossoliński National Institute. The author confronts her records with the vast literature on the subject and other archival materials. He also draws attention to methodological difficulties in studying a source that uses largely the language of the epoch in which it was produced. At the same time he points out the problem of using that part of the literature which was created before 1989 and does not always meet the basic requirements of objectivity and the lack of an exhaustive synthesis of the issue of the reconstruction of education after World War II.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jacek Piotrowski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Faces of Soviet Totalitarianism in the end of 1940s and Beginning of 1950s in Ludmila Ulitskaya’s Literary-journalistic Reflection
A great part of Ludmila Ulitskaya’s interest is focused on people and their fate. As the heroes of their universes, they are located in a concrete place and time, which are work, home, and the loved ones. Nevertheless, from the close perspective, they happen to be closely connected to historical events that cast a shadow on their ordinary lives and their, frequently, alternative worlds they made for themselves to survive. To escape the terror and the Soviet standards and restrictions, some of the people fight underground and the others immerse themselves in literature and art. However, there is one more group – people who spread the ideas of communism, pioneers of the political system, the Stalin’s myth authors, who help with rewriting the reality. Hence, the problems of totalitarianism, the tyrant’s myth, homo sovieticus are the essential elements of this paper. The paper aims to show the questions from the verge of history and anthropology, philosophy and sociology, as present in Ulitskaya’s works to exhibit the whole spectre of live events in the Soviet Russia in the end of 1940s and beginning of 1950s.
Copyright (c) 2025 Joanna Tarkowska http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Attitudes of Bishops of the Roman Catholic Church Towards the Socio-Political Reality of the People’s Republic of Poland in the Light of the 1982–1985 Reports of the Denominational Apparatus
The following text presents the attitudes of bishops of the Catholic Church in the socio-political reality of the People’s Republic of Poland in the first half of the 1980s from the perspective of analyses drawn up by the Office for Religious Affairs. It discusses the spectrum of attitudes of the church hierarchs, their most important goals and the methods with which the confessional apparatus tried to influence the attitudes of the bishops. The varying effectiveness of the conversations the representatives of the authorities had with the diocesan ordinaries was acknowledged, and it was pointed out that the moderate attitude of the church hierarchy was mainly due to the conviction that this was best for the interests of the Church.
Copyright (c) 2025 Rafał Łatka http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Historical Competence of Poles in Terms of Elementary Knowledge and Political Idealism – Results of a Survey
In July 2022, ABR SESTA Sp. z o.o., commissioned by the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, conducted a survey of the historical competences of Poles on a representative quota sample of 1001 people. Its results, in terms of elementary knowledge, leave much to be desired. This applies both to knowledge of universal history and recognition of Poles with world-class, non-political achievements. The political idealism of the respondents is also worrying.
Copyright (c) 2025 Mikołaj Piotrowski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Reception of Cassius Dio's Roman History in Pompey's Chapter of the Epitome of John Xiphilinos, part 2 (translation and commentary Epit. 1–21)
Present paper constitutes a supplement to the analysis of the first chapter of Xiphilinos’ Epitome conducted in an earlier article published in 56 number of Res Historica. It contains the first Polish translation of Xiphilinos’ work with commentary which highlights the most important differences between Epitome and Roman History of Cassius Dio.
Copyright (c) 2025 Kamil Biały http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Matrilocal Marriages in the Polish Villages in the 15th Century. The Case of the Union of Marcin Ruszel with Elżbieta from Dobrska Wola (Lublin Land)
Patrilocal marriages were definitely predominant in the medieval Polish villages. Equipped with money and movables, a woman would leave her family home and move in with her husband. This was determined not only by the traditional norms governing peasant communities, but also by the dominant patriarchal family model. Matrilocalism pertained to a situation where there was no male heir in the bride's family. In that case, the spouse could count on taking over the farm from the father-in-law. This rare family model could also exist in the case of a remarriage of a widow who was a disposer of a farm left over from a previous marriage. The court records published below deal with a case of such a rare union recorded in historical sources and the complications that followed. The introductory section discusses several factors that facilitate the interpretation of the edited texts. Information about the village of Dobrska Wola, the people involved in the court proceedings was collected, and the method of publication was presented. A separate section was devoted to the issue of matrilocal marriages in the Polish countryside in the existing, yet scarce, historical literature records.
Copyright (c) 2025 Grzegorz Jawor, Małgorzata Kołacz-Chmiel http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Will of Lviv Burgher Wawrzyniec Morawiński from 1572 As an Example of the Last Will of a Childless Person
The documented last will of Wawrzyniec Morawiński shows the world of things surrounding a resident of Lviv in the early modern period. It is a contribution to the study of the everyday life of the bourgeoisie and the material and spiritual culture throughout history. The Testament is arranged with great precision and subtlety. On its basis one can accurately characterise the movable and immovable property of a moderately wealthy burgher of the early modern period and his relations with other town inhabitants.
Copyright (c) 2025 Olha Hul http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Register of Expenditures on the Construction and Repairs of Buildings in the Jurydyka of Probostwo, Belonging to the Collegiate church of St. Michael in Lublin, Drawn up by Wincenty Jezierski, Preceptor and Procurator of the Same Collegiate Church
Register of expenses for renovations and construction of new facilities in the Rectory jurydyka, belonging to the collegiate church of St. Michael in Lublin, presents the efforts made by priest Wincenty Jezierski, provost and prosecutor of the collegiate chapter, in the years 1787–1799. The edition of the source was preceded by an introduction presenting the person of priest Wincenty and his life path, from the position of land bailiff in Łuków, through university studies in Krakow and subsequent stages of his clerical career (scholasteria in Kamieniec, rectory in Kock and Abramowice, rectory of St. Michael's Collegiate Church) until his death in 1816 in Kamionka. The introduced register is one of the few documents presenting the technical side of Lublin's architecture at that time, by placing specific buildings in a specific topography of the city and listing the types of building materials and the value of the services of individual craftsmen employed in the work performed.
Copyright (c) 2024 Anna Krystyna Łosowska http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Beginnings of the Scientific Career of Ludwik Ćwikliński (1853–1942) in the Light of the Lviv Archive Record from 1876
The aim of this article is twofold: first, to provide a brief overview of the life of the eminent Polish classical philologist Ludwik Ćwikliński, now almost forgotten; and second, to offer a critical edition of the ‘Bericht’ (i.e. report) on Ćwikliński’s early academic and professional achievements, which was prepared in January 1876 in connection with the scholar’s planned employment at the chair of classical philology at Lviv University (including its translation into Polish). This document, written in German by Professor Ksawery Liske and currently stored in the Lviv Region State Archive in Lviv, has not been used by researchers to date. It provides us with extremely interesting and, above all, hitherto unknown information about the beginnings of Ludwik Ćwikliński’s academic path. In addition, it offers invaluable insights into the scholar’s life and, from a broader research perspective, the history of classical philology in Poland.
Copyright (c) 2025 Krzysztof Królczyk http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
German Diplomatic Reports on the Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland from November 1905.
The revolution, as it broke out in 1905, met with great interest from Russia's neighboring countries. Diplomats accredited in that country sent their superiors numerous reports on developments. This was also the case with the Kingdom of Poland. This article contains translated into Polish three extensive reports sent from the German consulate in Warsaw to Reich Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow in November 1905 describing the course of the revolution in the Kingdom of Poland and the public mood there.
Copyright (c) 2025 Piotr Szlanta http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
‘Such a solution would also have a hugely significant political impact…’ Stanisław Srokowski, Governor of Volhynia, on the Roman Catholic Church in Czartorysk
Stanisław Srokowski was voivode of Volhynia from February 1923 to August 1924. In addition to political, social and economic matters, he was interested in the restoration of the former Dominican church in Czartorysk. The temple, converted into an Orthodox church in 1839 and ruined during the World War I, was recovered by the Catholic Church in 1920 or 1921; in 1924 Srokowski made efforts to obtain grants for it. As a result of the works carried out in the interwar period, the church was secured and largely rebuilt.
Copyright (c) 2025 Agnieszka Biedrzycka http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Winners of the „Kurier Lubelski” Poll for the Best Athlete in the Lublin Region in 1962–2024
The article presents outstanding athletes, winners of the “Kurier Lubelski” poll for the most popular (best) athlete in the Lublin region. The “Kurier Lubelski” poll is the oldest in the province, with the first edition taking place in 1962. In the 63 polls held, 41 athletes have won, including nineteen Olympic participants. This work is an attempt to present the best athletes from the Lublin Province and their achievements in sports arenas around the world, distinguished in the “Kurier Lubelski” polls over more than 60 years.
Copyright (c) 2025 Maciej Powała-Niedźwiecki http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Drake of Cracow at Stake. Against the Holophagus as Seen by Professor Zenon Kałuża
Author argue against the Zenon Kałuża’s conviction that the beast of Wawel (Cracow), hidden in the Master Vincent’s Chronicle (end of 12th c.) behind the name of holophagus, is, indeed, not a drake, but a humanoid monster. The beast of Wawel, however, fits in very well together with the other representatives of numerous medieval drake family and the standard narrative pattern of fight with dragon was used by chronicler in the given tale.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jacek Banaszkiewicz http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A Valuable Edition and Several Issues Related to it (Comments on the Edition of Księga ławnicza miasta Barcina 1564–1668 (–1758), compiled and edited by Marcin Frąś and Wiesław Nowosad, published by Naczelna Dyrekcja Archiwów Państwowych, Warszawa 2022, pp. 343, 4 no pagination)
This article is a review of the Księgi ławniczej Barcina z lat 1564–1668 (–1758), compiled by Marcin Frąś and Wiesław Nowosad and published in 2022 by the Head Office of State Archives in Warsaw. It highlights the advantages of the edition resulting from the careful publication of the text, providing it with an extensive introduction, textual and factual footnotes, as well as personal, geographical and factual indexes. The article presents valuable information contained in this book and draws attention to the controversial solutions used in it. These mainly consisted of retaining the original spelling of surnames, which resulted in their variable spelling, not providing the correct meaning of all incomprehensible terms and explaining only some of them, and omitting important entries in both indexes.
Copyright (c) 2025 Janusz Łosowski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Mystery of Style. Notes on the Margins of a Monograph by Paulina Byzdra-Kusz: Stanisław Łoś (1890–1974). Życie i działalność akademicka w Katolickim Uniwersytecie Lubelskim, Lublin 2023, Wydawnictwo KUL, pp. 208
This article presents reflections on the monograph Stanisław Łoś (1890–1974). Life and Academic Activity at the Catholic University of Lublin, authored by Paulina Byzdra-Kusz. The work is unique because it is the first biography of this great intellectual and populariser of knowledge of antiquity published in book form. Salmon's readers have passionately explored the mystery of his unique writing style. Paulina Byzdra-Kusz does not attempt to answer the question of how and from whom he learned to write like this. An attempt to find an answer to it is the aim of this article.
Copyright (c) 2025 Maciej Jońca http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Anna Filipczak-Kocur, Skarbowość Rzeczypospolitej 1587–1648. Projekty – ustawy – realizacja, wydanie drugie poszerzone i uzupełnione, Wydawnictwo Sejmowe, Warszawa 2023, ss. 569
Copyright (c) 2025 Przemysław P. Szpaczyński http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Kimmo Rentola, Finlandia kontra Stalin. Od wojny zimowej do zimnej wojny 1939–1950, Poznań 2024, Dom Wydawniczy REBIS Sp. z o.o., ss. 303 [3]
Copyright (c) 2025 Jordan Siemianowski http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
8 maja 1945 roku. Polska perspektywa, red. Tomasz Bereza, Piotr Chmielowiec, Paweł Fornal, Rzeszów–Warszawa 2023, Instytut Pamięci Narodowej – Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu. Oddział w Rzeszowie, ss. 292, ill.
Copyright (c) 2025 Kacper Rosner-Leszczyński http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0